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<title>Image analysis</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Image analysis</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">Image processing</a>.</div>

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<p><b>Image analysis</b> or <b>imagery analysis</b> is the extraction of meaningful information from <a href="Image" title="Image">images</a>; mainly from <a href="Digital_image" title="Digital image">digital images</a> by means of <a href="Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">digital image processing</a> techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-solomonbreckon10fundamentals_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-solomonbreckon10fundamentals-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Image analysis tasks can be as simple as reading <a href="Barcode" title="Barcode">bar coded</a> tags or as sophisticated as <a href="Facial_recognition_system" title="Facial recognition system">identifying a person from their face</a>.

</p><p><a href="Computer" title="Computer">Computers</a> are indispensable for the analysis of large amounts of data, for tasks that require complex computation, or for the extraction of quantitative information. On the other hand, the human <a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a> is an excellent image analysis apparatus, especially for extracting higher-level information, and for many applications — including medicine, security, and remote sensing — human analysts still cannot be replaced by computers. For this reason, many important image analysis tools such as <a href="Edge_detection" title="Edge detection">edge detectors</a> and <a href="Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">neural networks</a> are inspired by human <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a> models.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Digital">Digital</h2></div>

<p>Digital Image Analysis or Computer Image Analysis is when a computer or electrical device automatically studies an image to obtain useful information from it. Note that the device is often a computer but may also be an electrical circuit, a digital camera or a mobile phone.

It involves the fields of <a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">computer</a> or <a href="Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">machine vision</a>, and <a href="Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a>, and makes heavy use of <a href="Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">pattern recognition</a>, <a href="Digital_geometry" title="Digital geometry">digital geometry</a>, and <a href="Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a>. This field of <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> developed in the 1950s at academic institutions such as the <a href="Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> A.I. Lab, originally as a branch of <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> and <a href="Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a>.

</p><p>It is the <a href="Quantitative_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative property">quantitative</a> or <a href="Qualitative_property" title="Qualitative property">qualitative</a> characterization of <a href="Two-dimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-dimensional">two-dimensional</a> (2D) or <a href="Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional</a> (3D) <a href="Digital_images" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital images">digital images</a>. 2D images are, for example, to be analyzed in <a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">computer vision</a>, and 3D images in <a href="Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a>. The field was established in the 1950s—1970s, for example with pioneering contributions by <a href="Azriel_Rosenfeld" title="Azriel Rosenfeld">Azriel Rosenfeld</a>, <a href="Herbert_Freeman" title="Herbert Freeman">Herbert Freeman</a>, <a href="Jack_E._Bresenham" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack E. Bresenham">Jack E. Bresenham</a>, or <a href="King-Sun_Fu" title="King-Sun Fu">King-Sun Fu</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2></div>

<p>There are many different techniques used in automatically analysing images. Each technique may be useful for a small range of tasks, however there still aren't any known methods of image analysis that are generic enough for wide ranges of tasks, compared to the abilities of a human's image analysing capabilities. Examples of image analysis techniques in different fields include:

</p>

<ul><li>2D and 3D <a href="Object_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Object recognition">object recognition</a>,</li>

<li><a href="Image_segmentation" title="Image segmentation">image segmentation</a>,</li>

<li><a href="Motion_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion detection">motion detection</a> e.g. <a href="Single_particle_tracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Single particle tracking">Single particle tracking</a>,</li>

<li><a href="Video_tracking" title="Video tracking">video tracking</a>,</li>

<li><a href="Optical_flow" title="Optical flow">optical flow</a>,</li>

<li><a href="Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical scan analysis</a>,</li>

<li><a href="3D_Pose_Estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="3D Pose Estimation">3D Pose Estimation</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

<p>The applications of digital image analysis are continuously expanding through all areas of science and industry, including:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, allows for precise measurements, visualization, and statistical analysis of anatomical structures.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Plate_reader" title="Plate reader">assay micro plate reading</a>, such as detecting where a chemical was manufactured.</li>

<li><a href="Astronomical_image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical image processing">astronomy</a>, such as calculating the size of a planet.</li>

<li><a href="Automated_species_identification" title="Automated species identification">automated species identification</a> (e.g. plant and animal species)</li>

<li><a href="Defense_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense (military)">defense</a></li>

<li><a href="Error_level_analysis" title="Error level analysis">error level analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Filter_(software)" title="Filter (software)">filtering</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">machine vision</a>, such as to automatically count items in a factory conveyor belt.</li>

<li><a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, such as determining if a metal weld has cracks.</li>

<li><a href="Medical_image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical image processing">medicine</a>, such as detecting cancer in a mammography scan.</li>

<li><a href="Metallography" title="Metallography">metallography</a>, such as determining the mineral content of a rock sample.</li>

<li><a href="Microscope_image_processing" title="Microscope image processing">microscopy</a>, such as counting the germs in a swab.</li>

<li><a href="Automatic_number_plate_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic number plate recognition">automatic number plate recognition</a>;</li>

<li><a href="Optical_character_recognition" title="Optical character recognition">optical character recognition</a>, such as automatic license plate detection.</li>

<li><a href="Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, such as detecting intruders in a house, and producing land cover/land use maps.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a>, such as to avoid steering into an obstacle.</li>

<li><a href="Security" title="Security">security</a>, such as detecting a person's eye color or hair color.</li></ul>

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</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Object-based">Object-based</h2></div>

<p><b>Object-based image analysis</b> (<b>OBIA</b>) involves two typical processes, segmentation and classification. Segmentation helps to group pixels into homogeneous objects. The objects typically correspond to individual features of interest, although over-segmentation or under-segmentation is very likely. Classification then can be performed at object levels, using various statistics of the objects as features in the classifier. Statistics can include geometry, context and texture of image objects. Over-segmentation is often preferred over under-segmentation when classifying high-resolution images.<sup id="cite_ref-liu2018_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liu2018-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Object-based image analysis has been applied in many fields, such as cell biology, medicine, earth sciences, and remote sensing. For example, it can detect changes of cellular shapes in the process of cell differentiation.;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it has also been widely used in the mapping community to generate <a href="Land_cover" title="Land cover">land cover</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-liu2018_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liu2018-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Blaschke_Hay_Kelly_Lang_2014_pp._180–191_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blaschke_Hay_Kelly_Lang_2014_pp._180–191-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>When applied to <a href="Earth_image" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth image">earth images</a>, OBIA is known as <i>geographic object-based image analysis</i> (GEOBIA), defined as "a sub-discipline of <a href="Geoinformation_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoinformation science">geoinformation science</a> devoted to (...) partitioning <a href="Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> (RS) imagery into meaningful image-objects, and assessing their characteristics through spatial, spectral and temporal scale".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Blaschke_Hay_Kelly_Lang_2014_pp._180–191_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blaschke_Hay_Kelly_Lang_2014_pp._180–191-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The international GEOBIA conference has been held biannually since 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>OBIA techniques are implemented in software such as <a href="ECognition" class="mw-redirect" title="ECognition">eCognition</a> or the <a href="Orfeo_toolbox" title="Orfeo toolbox">Orfeo toolbox</a>.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Archeological_imagery" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeological imagery">Archeological imagery</a></li>

<li><a href="Imaging_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging technologies">Imaging technologies</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">Image processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Imc_FAMOS" title="Imc FAMOS">imc FAMOS</a> (1987), graphical data analysis</li>

<li><a href="Land_cover_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Land cover mapping">Land cover mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Military intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFSolomon,_C.J.,_Breckon,_T.P.2010" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, C.J., Breckon, T.P. (2010). <i>Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing: A Practical Approach with Examples in Matlab</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470689776">10.1002/9780470689776</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0470844731</bdi>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSalzmannHoeselHaaseMussbacher2018" class="citation journal cs1">Salzmann, M.; Hoesel, B.; Haase, M.; Mussbacher, M.; Schrottmaier, W. C.; Kral-Pointner, J. B.; Finsterbusch, M.; Mazharian, A.; Assinger, A. (2018-02-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/files/48276169/A_novel_method_for_automated_assessment_of_megakaryocyte_differentiation_and_proplatelet_formation.pdf">"A novel method for automated assessment of megakaryocyte differentiation and proplatelet formation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Platelets</i>. <b>29</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">357–</span>364. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09537104.2018.1430359">10.1080/09537104.2018.1430359</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1369-1635">1369-1635</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29461915">29461915</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3785563">3785563</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Blaschke_Hay_Kelly_Lang_2014_pp._180–191-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blaschke_Hay_Kelly_Lang_2014_pp._180–191_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blaschke_Hay_Kelly_Lang_2014_pp._180–191_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBlaschkeHayKellyLang2014" class="citation journal cs1">Blaschke, Thomas; Hay, Geoffrey J.; Kelly, Maggi; Lang, Stefan; Hofmann, Peter; Addink, Elisabeth; Queiroz Feitosa, Raul; van der Meer, Freek; van der Werff, Harald; van Coillie, Frieke; Tiede, Dirk (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3945831">"Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis – Towards a new paradigm"</a>. <i>ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing</i>. <b>87</b> (100). Elsevier BV: <span class="nowrap">180–</span>191. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JPRS...87..180B">2014JPRS...87..180B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.isprsjprs.2013.09.014">10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2013.09.014</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0924-2716">0924-2716</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3945831">3945831</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24623958">24623958</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G.J. Hay & G. Castilla: <i>Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA): A new name for a new discipline.</i> In: T. Blaschke, S. Lang & G. Hay (eds.): Object-Based Image Analysis – Spatial Concepts for Knowledge-Driven Remote Sensing Applications. Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography, 18. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: 75-89 (2008)</span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131212125952/http://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing/special_issues/geobia">"Remote Sensing | Special Issue: Advances in Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing/special_issues/geobia">the original</a> on 2013-12-12.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><i>The Image Processing Handbook</i> by John C. Russ, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8493-7254-2</bdi> (2006)</li>

<li><i>Image Processing and Analysis - Variational, PDE, Wavelet, and Stochastic Methods</i> by <a href="Tony_F._Chan" title="Tony F. Chan">Tony F. Chan</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/view/jackieshen/">Jianhong (Jackie) Shen</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-89871-589-X</bdi> (2005)</li>

<li><i>Front-End Vision and Multi-Scale Image Analysis</i> by Bart M. ter Haar Romeny, Paperback, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-4020-1507-0</bdi> (2003)</li>

<li><i>Practical Guide to Image Analysis</i> by J.J. Friel, et al., <a href="ASM_International_(society)" title="ASM International (society)">ASM International</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-87170-688-1</bdi> (2000).</li>

<li><i>Fundamentals of Image Processing</i> by Ian T. Young, Jan J. Gerbrands, Lucas J. Van Vliet, Paperback, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>90-75691-01-7</bdi> (1995)</li>

<li><i>Image Analysis and Metallography</i> edited by P.J. Kenny, et al., International Metallographic Society and <a href="ASM_International_(society)" title="ASM International (society)">ASM International</a> (1989).</li>

<li><i>Quantitative Image Analysis of Microstructures</i> by H.E. Exner & H.P. Hougardy, DGM Informationsgesellschaft mbH, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-88355-132-5</bdi> (1988).</li>

<li>"Metallographic and Materialographic Specimen Preparation, Light Microscopy, Image Analysis and Hardness Testing", Kay Geels in collaboration with Struers A/S, ASTM International 2006.</li></ul>

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